Promising painless, continuous tracking for diabetes and metabolic monitoring

Low-concentration glucose and other biomarkers correlating variably with blood glucose

Electrochemical transduction, nanomaterials, microfluidics, data analytics

Overcoming sensitivity, sampling, and drift challenges

Sensing Modalities

Enzymatic & Non-enzymatic Electrochemical

Optical & Colorimetric Methods

Flexible substrates, wireless readout

Correlation, calibration, regulatory and real-world considerations

Improving accuracy, time-lag reduction, calibration, regulatory readiness

Key tradeoffs and advances (2019–2025)