Table: Summary of Cellulose-, Hemicellulose-, and Lignin-Based Sensors with References

Sensor Type | Material Base | Description / Key Features | Applications | Notable Research / Examples (References)

Physical & Chemical Sensors | Cellulose | Detect physical stimuli, transform to electrical signals; excellent mechanical, optical, electrical properties; surface modifiable | Environmental monitoring, medical, industrial | CNC-PANi strain sensor with self-healing (Song et al. [116]); Conductive hydrogel strain sensor (Zhang et al. [117], Yan et al. [115]); GO-integrated hydrogel (Su et al. [118])

Proximity Sensors | Cellulose | Non-contact detection; nanocellulose as matrix for conductive composites | Recycling, self-driving cars, mobile phones | CNCs-rGO film for finger detection (Sadasivuni et al. [120]); CNC/GO sensor with high sensitivity (Sadasivuni et al. [121])

Temperature Sensors | Cellulose | Electrical signal-based temperature measurement; flexible printed circuits | Medical, wearable devices | BC printed circuit boards (Yuen et al. [107]); rGO/BC aerogel film (Zhou et al. [124]); CNF thermoelectric sensor (Jung et al. [125])

Humidity Sensors | Cellulose | Polymer and nanomaterial composites; flexible, stretchable sensors | Human life, medical monitoring | TONC-CNT flexible sensors (Zhu et al. [127]); CNC/GO composite films (Kafy et al. [121]); BNC membrane sensors (Ginja et al. [130])

Gas Sensors | Cellulose | Detect toxic gases; BC as substrate for metal oxides | Environmental monitoring | BC/ZnO sensors (Núñez-Carmona et al. [132]); NiO nanoparticles with BC (Liu et al. [133]); CNF paper-based NO2 sensor (Koga et al. [134])

Biosensors | Cellulose | Use biological molecules for analyte detection; various transduction mechanisms | Biomedical, agricultural, environmental | Glucose sensors with NC (Neubauerova et al. [141], Mun et al. [142], Wang et al. [143]); Protease sensors (Ling et al. [146], Fontenot et al. [147]); Cholesterol sensors (Abdi et al. [149], Anirudhan et al. [150]); Urea sensors (Abdullahil et al. [153], Rehan et al. [154])

Physical & Chemical Sensors | Hemicellulose | Hydroxyl-rich, crosslinkable; flexible, stretchable hydrogels | Strain sensors, chemical sensors | Hybrid hydrogels with PPY/PVA (Zhang et al. [163]); TA@HC nanofillers (Gong et al. [164]); QH-GO hybrid films for humidity (Rao et al. [165])

Temperature Sensors | Hemicellulose | Laser-induced graphene from xylan for temperature sensing | Temperature sensors | LIG from xylan (Kulyk et al. [167])

Chemical Sensors | Hemicellulose | Dimensional stability, biodegradability; dye and metal ion adsorption | Industrial wastewater treatment | Xylan-gelatin hydrogels for methylene blue (Seera et al. [170]); Xylan-βCD hydrogels for metal ions (Kundu et al. [172])

Biosensors | Hemicellulose | Analytical probes for pathogen detection; SPR biosensors | Diagnostics, immunology | GM hydrogels with FA (Ling et al. [161]); Xylan-based CQDs for dopamine (Han et al. [173]); Mannan SPR biosensor (Katrlík et al. [174])

Physical & Chemical Sensors | Lignin | Biodegradable, UV-absorbing, thermally stable; hydrogels and composites | Pressure, humidity sensors | PVA/lignin-silver hydrogels (Han et al. [175]); Lignin QCM humidity sensors (Chen et al. [177]); Lignin-based carbon dots (Sun et al. [178])

Biosensors | Lignin | Enzyme immobilization, nanoparticle stabilization; colorimetric and electrochemical sensors | Medical diagnostics | GOx-SiO₂/Lig glucose biosensor (Jędrzak et al. [180]); IL-coated lignin AgNPs for H₂O₂ (Nishan et al. [181]); Lignin-AgNPs DNA sensor for tuberculosis (Tai et al. [182])