• Minimum central pressure: ~930 mb (hPa) • Maximum sustained winds: ~150 mph (240 km/h) — Category 4 on the Saffir–Simpson scale

1️⃣ Pressure and Wind Speed

• Up to 4.9 m (16 ft) in parts of southeast Louisiana, particularly near Port Fourchon and Grand Isle

2️⃣ Storm Surge (m)

• Primary: United States (Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama) • Secondary: Northeastern U.S. (New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania) from remnants causing flooding • Also affected parts of Cuba and the Cayman Islands before U.S. landfall

3️⃣ Country or Region of Impact

• Economic damages: ≈ US $75–80 billion • Deaths: ~107 total (direct and indirect, including flooding in the Northeast)

4️⃣ Damages and Deaths

• Low-lying coastal plains and wetlands of Louisiana are highly vulnerable to storm surge. • Mississippi Delta amplifies flooding due to poor drainage and subsidence. • Warm Gulf of Mexico waters (~30°C) provided fuel for rapid intensification before landfall.

5️⃣ How Has the Physical Geography Impacted the Hazard?

• High population density near coast increased exposure. • Strong building codes in some areas reduced structural damage. • Aging infrastructure and socioeconomic inequalities left poorer communities more exposed and slower to recover.

6️⃣ How Has the Level of Development Impacted the Hazard?

• Federal, state, and local coordination (FEMA, National Guard) led to faster evacuation and relief than during Hurricane Katrina (2005). • Investment in levees and flood protection around New Orleans reduced flood impacts. • Some rural parishes lacked adequate evacuation routes and emergency services, worsening outcomes.

7️⃣ How Has the Governance of the Place Impacted the Hazard Outcome?

• Climate change has warmed Gulf waters, increasing storm intensity and rainfall potential. • Wetland loss and coastal erosion (from levee building, oil and gas activity) removed natural buffers against surge. • Urbanisation increased surface runoff, worsening inland flooding.

8️⃣ How Have Humans Modified or Intensified the Hazard?

GEO