Degrees of Freedom DF

Replacement Level (% by cement weight)

Compressive Strength (28 days, % change vs. control)

Split Tensile Strength (% change)

Flexural Strength (% change)

Workability (Slump, mm increase)

Durability Notes

0% (Control)

100% (baseline, e.g., 30–40 MPa for M30)

100% (baseline, e.g., 3–4 MPa)

100% (baseline, e.g., 4–5 MPa)

Baseline (e.g., 75–100 mm)

Standard OPC concrete

10%

+5–15% (e.g., due to filler effect)

+10–14%

+5–10%

+10–20 mm

Improved abrasion resistance; optimal for early strength

20%

0–+10% (peaks at 7–28 days)

+5–12%

0–+5%

+20–30 mm

Best for sustainability; reduces heat of hydration; 12–25% CO₂ savings

30%

-5–0% (recoverable at 90 days)

-5–0%

+30–40 mm

Higher permeability reduction; suitable for pavements

40–50%

-10–20% (needs accelerators)

-5–10%

-10–15%

+40+ mm

For low-strength apps; geopolymer potential with GGBS

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