User-mode applications / APIs

Windows I/O Manager (kernel) • Creates IRP, enforces access/security, sets context

File System Drivers (e.g., NTFS, ReFS) ← for file-based I/O

Storage/Volume / Filter Drivers (e.g., encryption, volume management)

Class / Miniport / Bus Drivers (e.g., disk driver, NVMe, SATA, RAID controllers)

Physical Hardware (storage disks, controllers)